Upon entering one of the many spectacular churches in Rome, one’s attention is likely to immediately be directed towards the ceiling. This is ironic because in any church lacking ceiling decoration, one may never notice that there is anything missing. He or she could probably not even recall the color or texture of the plain ceiling. When a ceiling is decorated, however, it instantly draws attention and awe; inevitably, it becomes one of the most beautiful aspects of the church. The ceiling plays many different roles in a church and its characteristics may vary depending on the era in which it was created: Gothic, Renaissance or Baroque.

            Before coming to Rome, the ornamentation of ceilings was never something that we had encountered. Because of this, we were captivated upon entering our very first church here in Rome. We had never seen anything, let alone a ceiling, decorated so ornately. Following this fascination came curiosity. Why decorate a ceiling? What purpose does this serve? What we soon discovered was that the display of art on a ceiling is another way to further convey the message of the church. It communicates theology as biblical scenes are often depicted, conveying the beliefs of that particular religion. The perfect example of this would be the fresco on the ceiling of the Jesuit church, Il Gesu. This ceiling displays the doctrine of the Jesuits as Protestant heretics are cast out of Heaven, while the Jesuits are shown ascending into Heaven. Essentially, the ceiling acts as a giant canvas for the church to broadcast its ideals and practices.

            Aside from its theological purposes, the ceiling is also used to further decorate a church. It plays a large part in the overwhelming grandeur of a place of worship. Many times, the tremendous size and decoration of a church is meant to play a role in the lack of human scale. The purpose of this is to express the message that the human being is small and powerless, while God is great and omnipotent. It is not uncommon to enter a church in Rome and feel as though you are a bug, waiting to be squashed and, quite honestly, this was the exact intention of the artists and architects; with this feeling comes a sense of humility before God.

            The decoration of ceilings was also embraced for the mere fact that, as a piece of art, its safety was ensured from dust and the fingerprints of onlookers. On the contrary, it may become subject to the damage of candle smoke, and such was the case of Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel. In 1980, Pope John Paul II announced that restorations would be made to the famous frescoes. This topic created a great deal of controversy, people disagreed with the tampering of priceless works of art such as this and a petition was signed by well known artists, including Andy Warhol and George Segal, asking to halt the restoration process. Despite the disapproval of many critics, the restoration of the famous ceiling began, unveiling the bright and rich colors that Michelangelo had originally intended. 

Although the role of ceilings is consistent throughout the centuries, the characteristics of these ceilings vary greatly from era to era. The Gothic era, beginning in the early 1200’s and stretching as far as 1500, can be described in two words: height and light. Ceilings were raised upon the incorporation of pointed arches. The Gothic era took the Roman arch and made it pointed. It then introduced the structure of ribbed vaulting to evenly distribute the weight of the ceiling. Because of the many stained glass windows that can also be found inside a Gothic church, flying buttresses were added to the outside of the building for greater support. These massive churches, which came to be known as “stone Bibles”, stressed the importance of the supernatural. This Gothic approach was just one of the three artistic styles found in the medieval age. The interest of this era was found solely in the representation of the image of Christianity rather than the exact human anatomy. Art was created to glorify God and not man. Examples of this can be seen in the only Gothic basilica in Rome, Santa Maria Sopra Minerva. Ribbed vaulting divides the ceiling panels into four sections and simple representations of Christ can be found in each panel of the blue and gold ceiling. Also, one of the most famous Gothic-style buildings is London’s own Westminster Abbey. While the Abbey does not display frescoed or picturesque ceilings, it remains true to the architectural style of a Gothic ceiling with its pointed arches and ribbed vaulting.

            Like the Gothic era, Renaissance style holds specific characteristics that distinguish it from other eras. Beginning in Florence in 1350 and continuing until 1600, the Renaissance, meaning “rebirth”, can be summarized as a rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman art. Unlike the medieval age, which stressed the importance of the supernatural, the interest of the Renaissance was found in the scientific study of the human body and the natural world. The idea of humanism was introduced and it emphasized worldly concerns over spiritual matters. These ideas and values were represented in the art of this time as the human body was depicted in immense detail and accuracy. There were many artistic innovations that came along with the Renaissance as well, such as oil paintings stretched on canvas, the use of perspective, the contrast of light and darkness, and the pyramid configuration. There was also a style of ceiling painting called di sotto in sù, which means, “seen from below” or “from below, upward”. This technique relies on the uses of both foreshortened figures and a vanishing point. This was done to give the impression of true space on a painted or frescoed ceiling. Most of the ceilings of this time period were either a barrel vault or a flat ceiling with coffered squares. The most famous example of this era would be Michelangelo’s frescoes of the Sistine Chapel’s ceiling. The number of figures, and the detail to which they are painted, portray the idea of humanism perfectly. Again, the Renaissance differs from the Gothic age through its emphasis on the natural over the supernatural, and the Sistine Chapel and its ceiling clearly display this fact.

            The Baroque age, like Gothic style and the Renaissance, has several defining characteristics. This time period, beginning around 1590 and ending in 1725, was heavily influenced by scientific advancement. One key feature of Baroque architecture is the oval shape, which was inspired by Newton’s Laws of Motion. The term Baroque comes from the word barocco, which means “an irregular pearl”. Its features include a lack of balance, powerful movement, energy, dramatic interpretation of the subject matter and strong lighting. A few artistic giants of the time were Bernini, Borromini and Caravaggio. A key element of the Baroque style ceilings is quadratura. This is the opening up of walls through illusion. This concept relied on the seventeenth century theories of architecture and perspective. Because of this, quadratura become more effective than the Renaissance’s di sotto in sù. An example of quadratura can be seen in the ceiling of Sant’Ignazio. The artist, Andrea Pozzo, used the concept of perspective to create imaginary height on the flat surface of the church’s ceiling. The fresco appears to ascend into Heaven as the columns stretch upward, however, what the viewer may not initially realize is that the ceiling is actually flat and the illusion of height is only due to the artist’s play on perspective.

            Whether the style resembles the Gothic, Renaissance or Baroque era, the purpose of a church ceiling is fulfilled through the artistic and architectural expression of the beliefs of the church. From the supernatural elements of the Gothic era, to the importance of humanism in the Renaissance, to the play on perspective in the Baroque style, every time period holds unique characteristics that serve a similar purpose. Today, however, ceilings, like the rest of the church, have lost their grandeur. They are no longer painted or ornately detailed. Instead, function has become more important than decoration. They have become practical, serving only the purpose of holding up the roof. With this loss of splendor in the current age, however, comes a greater appreciation of the ceilings of the past; amid the absence of embellishment today, one becomes more capable of recognizing and relishing the magnificence of the decoration of past centuries.

Sources:

Dr. Cole's Lecture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceiling

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusionistic_ceiling_painting

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_of_the_Sistine_Chapel_frescoes

The Patriarchal Cathedral Basilica of Saint Mark is the most famous cathedral in Venice, Italy. Originally, it was considered to be the Doge's chapel. However, in 1807, after it became the seat of the Venetian Patriarch it was renamed as St. Mark's Cathedral. The basilica is a prime example of Italo-Byzantine architecture.  Traditional Roman architecture is seen in the rounded arches and columns, a Byzantine influence is seen in the Greek-cross shape of the basilica, and magnificent mosaics covering the ceiling.  The mosaics represent Biblical stories, allegorical figures, the Virgin Mary, Jesus, Saint Mark and other saints.  The incredible colors of the mosaics, mostly gold, cover the walls and ceiling from 21 meters wide to 28 meters high.  In the basilica there are more than 8,000 square meters of mosaics, enough mosaics to cover 1.5 American football fields.  The gold, glass, and jewels that create the mosaics are results from early crusades, which also helped the church to acquire the four bronze horses it houses today, originally from Constantinople (or modern day Istanbul).   The image below is from a barrel vault in the basilica, with Christ being crucified as the soldiers pierce his side.  The mosaics were developed over 8 centuries, but in the end the extravagance of these was worth the time it took to create.  

Work Cited:

• http://www.basilicasanmarco.it/eng/basilica_mos/mosaici.bsm
• http://www.wga.hu/html_m/zgothic/mosaics/6sanmarc/
  

Built in honor of the Virgin Mary in the fifth century AD, The Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore still stands today with great beauty.  The architecture is very classical Roman, with Roman arches and ionic columns throughout the structure.  The ceiling was built by Alessandro VI, an archpriest and member of the Borgia family, a prominent Spanish Renaissance family from which two popes came.  It is coffered, meaning there are sunken square panels covering the ceiling, similar to those found in the dome of the Pantheon, and contains wooden detailing.  Although initally painted by Guiliano da Sangallo, the ceiling was finished by Guiliano's brother, Antonio.  In the center of the ceiling there is the coat of arms of the Borgia family, displaying a bull as the family crest.  It is said that the coat of arms contains gold given by Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain, brought back from the New World.  

 The apse contains mosaics done by Jacopo Torriti, depicting the coronation of Mary.  It is split into two parts: the central medallion and the lower band.  The central medallion shows Jesus and Mary sitting upon an oriental throne.  Jesus is placing a crown on Mary's head, suggesting Mary is the "Mother of the Church" and the "Bride of her Son". Beneath them are mosaics of the sun, moon, and a host of angels.  To the right is St. John the Baptist, St. John the Evangelist, St. Anthony, and the donor, Dardinal Colonna.  To the left is St. Peter, St. Paul, St. Francis of Assisi, and Pope Nicholas IV.  

Sources:
-"BUILDING HISTORY OF THE BASILICA OF SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE."BUILDING
  HISTORY OF THE BASILICA OF SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE. N.p., 25 Feb. 2000. Web. 15 Mar. 2014.
-Riccitelli, Patrizia, and Giammarco Limardi. A Visit to the Patriarchal Basilica of Santa Maria 
  Maggiore. Vatican City: Edito Da Di. Edit., 2005. Print.
-"Salus Populi Romani." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 15 Mar. 2014. Web. 15 Mar. 2014
-"The Papal Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore." The Papal Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. 
  N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Mar. 2014.

     The Triumph of Divine Providence is located in the largest and most important hall of Palazzo Barberini. This painting consumes over 400 square meters of decorated fresco, which was created by the Italian painter Pietro da Cortona. The elaborate project was commissioned by Pope Urban VIII (Maffeo Barberini) in 1632, and finished by Cortona in 1639. 

     Pietro da Cortona (1596-1669),  the artist behind this work, was born in a small town near Tuscany and earned the reputation of being the best Baroque painter of his day. He worked mainly in Florence and Rome, painting ceiling frescos such as the Triumph of Divine Providence and Salon. Despite Cortona’s skillful and elaborate frescos of the 17th century, his fame never reached that of artists like Bernini, Borromini, and Caravaggio. His use of bright colors and crowded figures in the luminous sky of his frescos spurred some critics to classify his work as Rococo style.

     The Triumph of Divine Providence is an overwhelming whirlpool of flying figures with landscapes and illusionistic painted architecture called quadratura. The ceiling is overwhelming, which is both a visual and emotional adventure. This fresco is a perfect example of Baroque or even the beginning stages of Rococo art. The painting’s dynamic rhythm and use of various lighting exalts the virtues of the Barberini-born Pope and his family. The Triumph of Divine Providence has been understood by some scholars to represent the Barberini papal election. In the central part of the ceiling fresco is Divine Providence who sits on a cloud, while at the other end are putti and flying maidens holding papal keys. Other figures in the fresco are Justice, Piety, Power, Truth, and Beauty, while in the center of the ceiling is Immorality which wears a crown of stars. This crown, according to scholars, symbolizes the honor and wisdom cultured men have in heaven. The huge fresco is rich with allegory through symbols, but the historical episodes are primarily intended to praise the virtues of the Barberini Pope.  

Sources:

• http://simonaalbanese.blogspot.it/2010/03/triumph-of-divine-providence-by-pietro.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegory_of_Divine_Providence_and_Barberini_Power_(Cortona)
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ajaccio_Da_Cortona_Autoportrait.JPG
• http://cdn2.all-art.org/baroque/images/cortona2.jpg
• http://37.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_mak5afjxic1ql3umeo1_1280.jpg
• http://standrewsschoolofhistory.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/berberini3.jpg?w=630
  
  

"Between 1050 and 1350, eighty cathedrals, five hundred large churches and thousands of smaller churches were built.” One of those eighty Cathedrals built would include the Notre Dame Cathedral. Notre Dame sits on an island surrounded by the Seine River. Since the 6th century, this site has been known to be, “The cradle of Paris” meaning, that it was not only a place where the rich resided, but it was also considered to be the religious epicenter of France. 

The founder of the Cathedral was Maurice de Sully (1120-1196), who was a reigning archbishop in France during 1160. Originally Notre Dame was built for a growing congregation, but as the production of the building continued, it turned into a display for a new form of architecture. This style was called Gothic. The construction of the Cathedral started in 1163 and ended in 1345, one hundred and eighty-two years after the first stone was put into place. The reason is because the design of the building was enlarged during construction. The final result was a 128 meter long church with two towers reaching 69 meters high. However, during the French Revolution, many of the external and internal elements of the Cathedral were demolished. It was not until the 19th century when Victor Hugo made the Parisians realize what a gem was hiding within in their own border. The passion that Hugo had about refurbishing the Cathedral spread like wild fire. Victor Hugo instilled a new appreciate in monuments and buildings that the French had overlooked because of the invasive war. The restoration of the Notre Dame Cathedral lasted approximately twenty years and was led by a local artist, Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879). Controversy arose when Viollet-le-Duc applied architectural modifications, such as creating a spire during the first restoration process. Finally, in 1991 and 2001 the cathedral was restored for a second and third time; carefully persevering the historic architecture.

Because Gothic architecture was relatively new, during the 12th -14th century this style exploded in France. The Gothic Movement of the Middle Ages was characterized by lightness and brightness while giving a sense of space. This is due to high ceilings and simple ornamentation. Other key features of Gothic architecture are vaulted ceilings, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses. From personal experience, all of these features can be noticed when gazing at the Cathedral's exterior and interior. The Cathedral of Notre Dame is a prime example of true Gothic architecture.  Although Notre Dame is not coffered in gold or painted with elaborate frescoes, it offers a new perspective on the way in which architectural design and style can influence a new Era of art.

 

     On the second floor of the Papal Palace is the Hall of Constantine, which is the largest room of the apartment used for banquets and important occasions. Today, it is located in the Vatican Museum in Vatican City. This room was designed to express the success and journey of Christianity in honor of the first holy Roman emperor, Constantine. Artists that were a part of Raphael’s studio decorated the majority of this room, however, Tommaso Laureti frescoed the Triumph of Christianity on the ceiling.

     Tommaso Laureti was an Italian artist from Sicily who was designated to paint the ceiling of Constantine’s room. Inspired by Michelangelo’s form of illusionistic painting, Laureti created a magnificent example of diminishing scale in his Triumph of Christianity. This beautiful ceiling fresco was commissioned under Gregory XIII and was later finished under the reign of Pope Sixtus V. The project began in 1582 and was completed in 1585.  Within this fresco, Laureti captures an outstanding perspective of depth which pays tribute to Constantine’s destruction of all pagan idols within Rome.  The broken idol on the floor represents the removal of pagan gods, which is replaced by Christ’s image on the cross.  

     The most interesting part of the symbolism behind the painting is that Constantine never actually ordered the removal of pagan god's from Rome like the painter is trying to suggest in this work. Ironically, Constantine never actually destroyed pagan god's, rather this may be the Catholic Church suggesting that he did for their own agenda. 

Sources:

• http://myworldmybook.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/p1100309.jpg
  
• http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_2ZXSsLYde8U/SsDWNEEck9I/AAAAAAAABMk/OGcvhnKCDvk/s400/Tommaso.Laureti.Triumph.of.Christianity.jpg
  
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommaso_Laureti
• The Vatican Museums (Publisher: Sillabe) (Editor: Maddalena Paola Winspeare)
  

Construction for Rome’s main Jesuit church, Chiesa del Gesu, began in 1568. The building process took a total of twelve years before it was completed in 1580. The ceiling, designed by Giovanni Battista Guili (1639-1703), was added after the church’s completion, but it is by far its most interesting feature. This fresco, Baroque in style, embodies the ideas of the Jesuits. This fresco, entitled “Triumph of the Name of Jesus”, displays the monogram of Christ in the center with a blinding light flowing from it. The monogram consists of the first three Greek letters of the name of Jesus, IHS. Within the fresco, saints and angels surround the monogram of Christ. The heretics that physically pour out of the fresco contrast the heavenly figures as they are hurled back to Earth. These heretics, the Jesuits believe, are Protestants. The Protestant figures were added to the ceiling as stucco, a wet material that hardens upon drying, thus creating a three dimensional effect. The effects of stucco are remarkable as the figures seem to nearly jump out at the viewer. 

These stucco figures, resting on the dark clouds, are the emphasis of the ceiling because without them, the vivid contrast of light and darkness would not be displayed. Christ and his followers, the Jesuits, are displayed in a gleaming light, while the heretical Protestants being cast out of Heaven are shown in dark contrasting colors. This is meant to represent the idea that the Jesuits’ doctrine is pure and holy, while the new ideas of Protestants are corrupt. This fresco is a direct reflection of the Catholics' answer to the Protestant Reformation, through the Counter-Reformation. 

Whether one is Catholic or Protestant, they will find this church quite aesthetically pleasing as the oval baroque fresco is surrounded by intricate gold ceiling details. Like most ceilings that we’ve found throughout Europe, Chiesa del Gesù contains an immense amount of detail. Something that was very appreciated by this group of students- who now have neck problems from their research of ceilings in Europe- was a mirror that the church provided on the ground level as a way to view the details of the ceiling. 


Sources:
Notes on Dr. Cole's lecture
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_Gesù
http://www.italianways.com/the-vault-ceiling-in-the-church-of-the-gesu-in-rome/

Santa Maria Sopra Minerva in Assisi, Italy, was originally built as a temple for Minerva, the Roman goddess of Wisdom.  In the 17th century, a Catholic Church was built upon the temple (yet still used the original façade).  The name translates into "Saint Mary Above Minerva", showing the dominance of Mary and, ultimately, Christianity, over the pagan religions of ancient Rome, as does the placement of the basilica, built on top of the old temple.  The interior contrasts the ancient façade, boasting Baroque style architecture and impressive paintings.  In the middle of the vaulted ceiling is a golden medallion with "San Filippo" in glory, surrounded by four angels made of golden succo in bas relief.  Behind each angel is one of the four cardinal virtues, each symbolized by a woman sitting on clouds.  Justice and fortitude are on the right, and prudence and temperance are on the left.  The temperas were made by Francesco Appiani, an Italian painter.  The remainder of the ceiling is highly decorated with elegant gold designs, common of baroque style architecture.  

Sources:
http://www.franciscanfriarstor.com/archive/stfrancis/stf_Ancient_Roman_History_of_Assisi.htm

The Duomo of Orvieto was designed by Lorenzo Maitani and many others. Some of the key features of the Cathedral are its mosaics, stained glass windows, sculptures, and frescoes. Because of the isolated location of the cathedral, many visitors question its splendidness. Its extravagant decoration is dedicated to an unknown pope who, in 1260, visited Orvieto on a pilgrimage to Rome. Legend claims this priest was skeptical of the sacraments being the actual body of Christ. However, during one the ceremonies, the bread began to bleed, staining the cloth that covered the table of the sacraments. This event confirmed the pope’s faith and reaffirmed his disbelief. From that moment forward, the blood stained cloth was considered by the Cathedral of Orvieto to be a holy relic. Since 1260, the architects of the Cathedral have tried to ornament the building, portraying its worth for obtaining such a holy piece of material.

Around 1447, through the invitation of Pope Eugene IV, Fra Angelico (1395-1455) and Benozzo, along with their many helpers, were commissioned to decorate the interior of the Cathedral in Orvieto, specifically the chapel of Madonna di San Brizio. Because of tension between artists, the ceiling frescoes suffered, remaining unfinished for fifty years until Luca Signorelli (1499-1503) decided to finish them. Signorelli painted with a technique that combined Romanesque and Gothic style. He portrayed many biblical scenes like the “Apocalypse” and “The Last Judgment”. His most significant fresco shows “The Preaching of the Antichrist” which holds figures like Dante, Raphael, Christopher Columbus, and a self-portrait. 

Not only does Signorelli focus on the struggle of the Christians, but he also declares that Jesus is the all-powerful, all-knowing Savior over his created order. This he shows by placing a fresco of Jesus directly over the altar. Jesus is wearing a halo signifying his majesty and glowing gold, showing that he is of divine nature. Jesus seems to be holding a royal sphere in his left hand, while lifting his right hand. This signifies that Jesus reigns supreme, yet he blesses all who enter his kingdom.

The land on which Saint John Lateran sits was once the estate of the Laterani family. In the fourth century, Constantine I obtained the estate and leased it to Pope Melchaides. It became the official place of residency for the pope until the papacy’s exile in 1309. Since then, the Basilica has been rebuilt due to an earthquake in 896, and fires in 1308, and in 1360. When the papacy returned, they found that Saint John Lateran was in no way livable—so they moved to the Vatican. Although St. John Lateran's facade had aged, the 16th century cathedral's foundation stayed relatively intact. The Basilica of Saint John Lateran was not renovated until Innocent X commissioned Borromini to save the collapsing Basilica. 

 Focusing on the details of the ceiling, one must first notice the Basilica’s pediments. Their purpose is to evenly distribute the weight of the ceiling while holding it in place. They are detailed with doves, which signify the Pamphili family of Pope Innocent X. Finally, looking to the ceiling one will see the gilded woodwork that was created by Giacomo della Porta (1537-1602). Not only was Giacomo della Porta tutored by Michelangelo, but he also reintroduced the Medieval Italian artwork of Cosmati. This was the style of geometric stonework. Incorporated into the gold coffered ceiling were the coats of arms of Pius IV, Pius V, and Pope Martin. To clarify, the meaning of coffered in the 6th century usually referred to a strongbox that was sumptuously decorated and held valuable things. Therefore, the Basilica of Saint John Lateran can be seen as a treasure box filled with masterpieces from every historic period. In the end, Saint John Lateran played a huge role in the history of Rome, as well as the Roman Catholic Church.